Objective: To determine whether a moral reasoning exercise can improve response quality to surveys of healthcare priorities Methods: A randomised internet survey focussing on patient age in healthcare allocation was repeated twice. From 2574 internet panel members from the USA and Canada, 2020 (79%) completed the baseline survey and 1247 (62%) completed the follow-up. We elicited respondent preferences for age via five allocation scenarios. In each scenario, a hypothetical health planner made a decision to fund one of two programmes identical (...) except for average patient age (35 vs 65 years). Half of the respondents (intervention group) were randomly assigned to receive an additional moral reasoning exercise. Responses were elicited again 7 weeks later. Numerical scores ranging from –5 (strongest preference for younger patients) to +5 (strongest preference for older patients); 0 indicates no age preference. Response quality was assessed by propensity to choose extreme or neutral values, internal consistency, temporal stability and appeal to prejudicial factors. Results: With the exception of a scenario offering palliative care, respondents preferred offering scarce resources to younger patients in all clinical contexts. This preference for younger patients was weaker in the intervention group. Indicators of response quality favoured the intervention group. Conclusions: Although people generally prefer allocating scarce resources to young patients over older ones, these preferences are significantly reduced when participants are encouraged to reflect carefully on a wide range of moral principles. A moral reasoning exercise is a promising strategy to improve response quality to surveys of healthcare priorities. (shrink)

Subjects enrolled in studies testing high risk interventions for incurable or progressive brain diseases may be vulnerable to deficiencies in informed consent, such as the therapeutic misconception. However, the definition and measurement of the therapeutic misconception is a subject of continuing debate. Our qualitative pilot study of persons enrolled in a phase I trial of gene transfer for Parkinson disease suggests potential avenues for both measuring and preventing the therapeutic misconception. Building on earlier literature on the topic, we developed and (...) tested an interview guide that focuses on how the subjects decided to participate, emphasizing the integration of subjects’ various statements that are relevant to assessing the therapeutic misconception, rather than evaluating them as isolated statements. The results indicate that a subject’s understanding of the purpose of research is best explored in juxtaposition to the subject’s motivation for participating. (shrink)

The main goal of this study was to identify factors motivating pragmatic transfer in advanced learners of English. Based on a cross-cultural comparison of requesting behavior between Koreans and Americans, this study determined the impact of individual subjective motives on pragmatic language choice. Two different groups of subjects participated in this study: 30 Korean participants and 30 American college students. Data were collected by using a Discourse Completion Task. Korean participants provided the data for Korean and English versions of DCT. (...) Semi-structured interviews were also conducted with 13 Korean ESL learners who showed the most and least amount of pragmatic transfer. Findings showed evidence of pragmatic transfer in the request responses given by Korean ESL learners in their requestive strategies, level of directness, and perspectives of head acts. The interview data revealed that Korean students were conscious of differing rules for making requests. Learners’ judgment of L2 pragmatic norms, perception of their own language, and their attitudes of the target language influence language use. Furthermore, findings showed that purpose of learning English, different types of motivation, and the length of intended residence contribute to the extent of pragmatic transfer. (shrink)

A total of 1918 loci, detected by the hybridization of 938 expressed sequence tag unigenes from 26 Triticeae cDNA libraries, were mapped to wheat homoeologous group 4 chromosomes using a set of deletion, ditelosomic, and nulli-tetrasomic lines. The 1918 EST loci were not distributed uniformly among the three group 4 chromosomes; 41, 28, and 31% mapped to chromosomes 4A, 4B, and 4D, respectively. This pattern is in contrast to the cumulative results of EST mapping in all homoeologous groups, as reported (...) elsewhere, that found the highest proportion of loci mapped to the B genome. Sixty-five percent of these 1918 loci mapped to the long arms of homoeologous group 4 chromosomes, while 35% mapped to the short arms. The distal regions of chromosome arms showed higher numbers of loci than the proximal regions, with the exception of 4DL. This study confirmed the complex structure of chromosome 4A that contains two reciprocal translocations and two inversions, previously identified. An additional inversion in the centromeric region of 4A was revealed. A consensus map for homoeologous group 4 was developed from 119 ESTs unique to group 4. Forty-nine percent of these ESTs were found to be homoologous to sequences on rice chromosome 3, 12% had matches with sequences on other rice chromosomes, and 39% had no matches with rice sequences at all. Limited homology was found between wheat ESTs on homoeologous group 4 and the Arabidopsis genome. Forty-two percent of the homoeologous group 4 ESTs could be classified into functional categories on the basis of blastX searches against all protein databases. (shrink)

Kungmin yulli t'ŭkkang -- Ch'oe Che-u non -- Silla munhwa wa p'ungnyu chŏngsin.

1. Pŏmbu ŭi p'ungnyu chŏngsin ch'ŏnmyŏng kwa "Hwarang oesa" kusang : kungmin todŏk seugi wa kwallyŏn hayŏ -- 2. Nae ka ponŭn Pŏmbu wa Pak Chŏng-hŭi ŭi sasŭng kwan'gye : Pak Chŏng-hŭi chipkwŏn ch'ogi ŭi chŏngch'i kihoek kwa kwallyŏn hayŏ -- 3. Han t'ojong sasangga ŭi sam kwa saenggak : iyagi ka innŭn Pŏmbu kim chŏngsŏl yŏnbo -- 4. Samin chŏngdam : chŏngch'i, kyŏngje, munhwa e kŏlch'yŏ -- 5. Yŏhaenggi : kurŭm ttara mul ttara ch'ŏlli rŭl kada.

1. T'oegye wa Hip'ok'ŭrat'esŭ ka mannagi kkaji -- 2. Taehwa e ch'amyŏ hasin pundŭl -- 3. Che 1-il. 'Kojŏn muksang' : kijon ŭi palgyŏndŭl ŭl ch'ulbalchŏm ŭro samaya -- 4. Che 2-il. 'Chonjaeron': mom an ŭi param ŭn hohŭp, mom pak ŭi param ŭn konggi -- 5. Che 3-il. 'Chŏngsŏ haengdongnon': chari ŭi ch'ai ro inhae sŏro tarŭda -- 6. Che 4-il. 'Kongburon': chonjae haji annŭn ŭisul ŭn ŏpta -- 7. Che 5-il. 'Chihaengnon': maŭm i p'yŏnhaji anŭl ttae nŭn han (...) kŏrŭm kŏrŏra -- 8. Che 6-il. 'Yulliron': kajang hullyunghan ŭihak ŭn ŭihak ŭl p'iryo ro haji ank'e hanŭn kŏt -- 9. Che 7-il. 'Chilli nŭn kat'ŭn kot e': modŭn kŏt ŭi sijak kwa kkŭt ŭn hana ida -- 10. Hip'ok'ŭrat'esŭ myŏngŏndŭl. (shrink)

1. 하나가 여럿에게 가는 길 - 2008년 11월 동아시아 경제공동체포럼 기조강연, 인천 드림시티에서 2. 물 - 마음과 돈과 물의 시대에 부쳐 3. 님 - 획기적 재분배의 이원집정제에 관하여 4. 도깨비 - ‘신의 우물’ 근처에서 춤추는 가난한 도깨비 이야기 5. 혁신 - 중국의 혁신은 ‘법혜월’과 같은 화엄개벽의 여성!

덜그럭 덜그럭 소란한 우리네 마음 살림살이를 깨끗하게 청소해주는 산중 큰스님을 만나다 “쩔쩔 맬 것 없이, 집착할 것도 없이, 한세상 훨훨 살아라!” ‘집안 살림’이 아무리 풍족해도 ‘마음 살림’ 부족하면 다 헛인생이다. 진짜 잘사는 사람은 쩔쩔 맬 일도 없이, 집착할 것도 없이 트인 마음으로 훨훨 살아가는 사람이 아닐까? 그런 길로 안내하는 스물일곱 산중 선승들을 만났다.“우리는 누구인가”, “어떻게 살아야 하는가”, “마음과 몸이 힘들고 어려울 때는 어떻게 해야 할까”. 저자는 오래전부터 팍팍한 세상에 필요한 ‘마음 살림살이’를 탁발하러 선승들을 찾아다녔다. 때로는 시대와 역사와 사회에 대한 촌철의 (...) 말씀을 청했고, 때로는 노스님의 살아온 이야기를 듣고 일상을 엿보기도 했다. 모든 스님들이 무더운 여름날 한줄기 시원한 소나기였다. 이 책에는 ‘염화실의 향기’라는 이름으로 경향신문에 연재한 글을 보완해 다시 쓴 것과 이후 만난 큰스님까지 모두 스물일곱 분의 이야기를 담았다. 그사이 이 세상을 떠나가신 큰스님들은 2부에 따로 모셨다. 스님들 몸은 산중에 있어서도 그 말씀은 속세를 떠나지 않았다. 어지럽고 어려운 이 세상을 향한 한 말씀 한 말씀은 송곳처럼 정곡을 찌르며 우리네 눈과 귀, 마음을 환하게 밝혀준다. 깨끗하게 비질 된 큰스님들의 ‘마음 마당’을 거닐다보면, 누구나 잃었던 마음의 본래 밝음을 되찾고, 저마다 ‘마음을 살리는 화두’ 하나씩 가슴에 품게 된다. (shrink)

베스트셀러 《왓칭》의 후속작인생의 큰 착각에서 깨어난 26년차 베테랑 기자의 놀라운 체험! ◎ 도서 소개 “나는 나를 텅 비웠는가?”이 질문 속에 모든 답이 들어 있다! 우리는 별의별 것들을 ‘내 것’으로 착각한다. 화가 나도 그것을 내 것으로 착각해 머릿속에 집어넣고 살다가 화병을 만든다. 골치가 아파도 내 것으로 착각해 머릿속에 가둬놓고 만성 두통으로 키워낸다. 욕심도 절망도 슬픔도 몽땅 머릿속에 집어넣고 다닌다. 그러다 보니 우리는 어느새 걸어 다니는 화 덩어리, 고통 덩어리, 스트레스 덩어리, 절망 덩어리가 된다. 내 안에 가득한 모든 쓸모없는 생각들을 싹 비워버리는 (...) 비밀은 없을까? 26년차 앵커이자 기자인 저자는 베스트셀러 《왓칭》이후 더욱 깊은 취재, 명상, 체험을 거쳐 두 번째 저서 《마음을 비우면 얻어지는 것들》(김상운 지음, 21세기북스)을 펴냈다. 그는 이 책을 통해 내 안에 가득 쌓인 모든 것들이 사라지는 유일한 비밀은 ‘이 모든 것들이 내 것이 아니다’는 사실을 진심으로 깨닫고 나를 텅 비우는 것이라고 말한다. 그리고 다양한 사례와 자신의 체험을 바탕으로 인생의 착각에서 깨어나는 순간, 마음이 텅 비어지면서 심신의 병과 고민과 지능의 한계 등 인생의 모든 장애물들이 저절로 텅 비어버리는 우주의 원리를 알기 쉽게 소개한다. “인생은 착각이다. 착각에서 깨어나면 고통의 감옥에서도 벗어난다.”-노벨물리학상 수상자 아인슈타인 “착각에서 깨어나면 ‘불가능’이 돌연 ‘가능’으로 바뀐다.”-물리학자, 심리학자 아놀드 민델 “텅 빈 마음은 창조의 공간이다. 무엇이든 창조한다.”-노벨물리학상 수상자 하이젠베르크 “마음을 텅 비우면 모든 병도 텅 비어버린다.”-정신의학자 스탠리 블락 마음을 비우면 비로소 얻어지는 것들 차원을 높이면 ‘불가능’이 ‘가능’으로 바뀐다텅 빈 우주엔 목표 달성에 필요한 모든 정보와 에너지가 다 들어 있다. 즉, 마음이 텅 비는 순간 우주와 접속되면서 목표 달성에 필요한 모든 걸 얻게 되는 것이다. 만일 목표가 이뤄지지 않았다면 마음을 텅 비우지 못했다는 증거다. 이처럼 진공의 세계는 우리가 아는 현실과는 전혀 다른 차원의 세계다. 아무 걸림돌도, 시간도, 거리도 없는 텅 빈 무의 세계다. 이 공간에서는 도저히 불가능하게 생각됐던 일도 돌연 가능해진다. 이른바 기적이 일어난다. 마음이 텅 비는 순간 전혀 다른 차원이 되는 것이다. 사람은 육신과 영체의 합작품육신은 일시적인 겉모습에 불과하다. 참 생명은 영체에 있다. 육신은 음식을 못 먹으면 죽지만 영체는 음식을 안 먹어도 영원히 생존하는 사랑 덩어리이기 때문이다. 사랑으로부터 지능, 생명, 에너지 등 우리가 원하는 모든 것이 흘러나온다. 생각은 되돌려주지 않으면 파리처럼 달라붙는다‘담배를 피우고 싶다’는 생각이 달라붙어 있으면 골초가 된다. ‘술을 마시고 싶다’는 생각이 달라붙어 있으면 술고래가 된다. 걸핏하면 버럭버럭 화를 터뜨리는 사람들도 원래부터 그런 게 아니다. 단지 우주에서 빌려 썼던 화를 되돌려주지 않고 머릿속에 품고 있을 뿐이다. 과거나 미래의 생각으로 머리를 가득 채우는 것 역시 불행이다. 몸은 현재에 살고 있는데 머릿속은 과거나 미래의 생각들로 가득 차 있다면 ‘나’는 둘로 쪼개져 있는 것이다. 현재의 순간에 몰입하는 것이야말로 평화의 이르는 길이다. 인생은 분명한 목적을 가진 연극이다인생도 연극이라는 사실을 분명히 깨닫는 순간, 똑같은 변화가 일어난다. 무엇보다도 ‘내 것’에 대한 집착에서 벗어난다. 내 것도, 네 것도 없다는 생각에 인생살이는 지나치게 심각히 받아들이지 않게 된다. 자신의 인생을 마치 관객처럼 바라보게 된다. ◎ 본문 중에서 텅 빈 우주에 모든 정보가 들어 있는데 나는 왜 그 정보를 마음대로 꺼내 쓰지 못하는 걸까? 주파수가 맞지 않기 때문이다. 생각해보라. 텅 빈 우주와 주파수를 맞추려면 내 마음도 역시 텅 비워야 하지 않겠는가? 하지만 마음을 텅 비우는 게 그리 쉽지 않다.내가 눈 뜨고 있는 단 한 순간도 마음이 비지 않기 때문이다. (35쪽) 상한 음식을 먹으면 배탈이 난다. 배탈은 썩은 음식을 먹지 말라는 신호다. 그걸 무시하고 계속 상한 음식을 먹으면 심지어 목숨을 잃을 수도 있다. 영혼도 우리가 위험에 빠지면 끊임없이 신호를 보내준다. 영체를 통해 몸에 보내주기도 하고 온갖 크고 작은 장애물들을 여기저기 널려놓아 하던 일을 멈추라고 경고해주기도 한다. 그 무언의 경고는 우리가 진심으로 마음을 텅 비운 채 귀를 기울여야 비로소 제대로 들을 수 있다. (125쪽) 우주에는 무수한 생각이 떠다닌다. 다만 눈에 보이지 않을 뿐이다. 눈에 보이지 않는 수많은 TV와 라디오 주파수들이 공중에 떠다니는 것과 마찬가지다. 내가 나쁜 생각에 주파수를 맞춰 증폭시키면 나쁜 생각이 내 머릿속에 가득하고, 좋은 생각에 주파수를 맞춰 증폭시키면 좋은 생각이 가득하다. 이 무수한 생각은 인생이라는 연극을 위한 소품이다. 필요할 때 빌려 쓰고 나면 반드시 우주에 되돌려주어야 한다. 되돌려주는 데에는 어떤 특별한 노력도 필요하지 않다. 그저 머릿속에 가둬놓지 않으면 스스로 알아서 되돌아간다. (162쪽) “남이 내게 던지는 독을 받을 것인가, 말 것인가?”그건 전적으로 나의 선택이다. 왜냐하면 남이 내 머릿속에 뛰어들어 독을 집어넣을 수는 없기 때문이다. 만일 엉겁결에 남의 독이 이미 내 머릿속에 들어와 버렸다면 얼른 이렇게 되뇌어라.‘독아, 나한테 날아왔니? 내 머리는 활짝 열려 있으니 우주로 되돌아가렴.’ (179쪽) 인생도 연극이라는 사실을 분명히 깨닫는 순간, 똑같은 변화가 일어난다. 무엇보다도 ‘내 것’에 대한 집착에서 벗어난다. 내 것도, 네 것도 없다는 생각에 인생살이를 지나치게 심각히 받아들이지 않게 된다. 자신의 인생을 마치 관객처럼 바라보게 된다. 그래서 셰익스피어는 “세상은 무대다. 사람들은 등장인물들이다”라고 했다. (282쪽) 프롤로그_텅 비우지 못하는 게 문제다 1장. 진공묘유: 텅 비우면 오묘한 일이 일어난다 ‘나’를 열어놓는 것이 열쇠다│‘나’는 열면 열수록 넓어진다 1. 텅 빈 우주는 모든 정보로 가득하다 ‘목표와 나는 하나다’라고 생각하라│‘나’를 열면 남의 천재성도 빌릴 수 있다│모든 답도 우주에 들어 있다 2. 텅 빈 우주는 에너지로 가득하다 ‘나’를 열면 에너지가 흘러들어온다 3. 목표 달성 직전엔 반드시 진공이 있다 차원을 높이면 ‘불가능’이 돌연 ‘가능’으로 바뀐다 2장. 육신에 대한 집착 텅 비우기 나는 몸으로 조립된 존재인가?│사람은 육신과 영체의 합작품 1. 영체는 사랑이 양식이다 사랑이 막히면 병이 난다│사랑이 끊기면 지능도 끊긴다│사랑이 끊긴 아이는 로봇이 된다│사랑이 흐르면 생명도 흐른다 2. ‘진정한 나’는 누구인가? 영혼은 무엇이든 볼 수 있다│내 영혼은 어떤 능력을 갖추고 있을까?│빛으로부터 고도의 지능도 흘러나온다 3. 영혼의 존재를 부인할 수 없는 이유 4. 영혼이 내려주는 선물 마음의 상처를 치유해준다│위험을 경고해준다│직감을 준다│사랑을 베풀게 한다│자신의 내면을 바라보게 해준다│열정에 응답한다│진심으로 일을 사랑하면 반드시 기회를 준다 3장. 생각 텅 비우기 짓눌리면 튀어 오른다 1. 나는 생각으로 조립된 존재인가? 생각은 떼어낼 수 없는가?│생각은 사실인가?│되돌려주지 않으면 파리처럼 달라붙는다│달라붙은 생각이 인생을 망친다 2. 가둬놓지 않으면 저절로 날아간다 남의 독을 왜 내 머릿속에 가둬놓는가?│내 머릿속엔 독이 들어 있진 않은가?│머리를 활짝 열어놓으면 되돌아간다 3. 틀어박힌 생각과 대화하기 4. 왜 한 가지 생각에 파묻혀버릴까? 한 가지 생각에 빠져드는 속성│고정된 생각이 고정된 인생 트랙을 만들어낸다│무수한 ‘나’가 존재한다│나와 똑같은 사람이 했다면 나도 할 수 있다 5. 생각의 선택이 운명을 만든다 고미바다 어두운 선택을 하면 어두운 운명이 된다│고비마다 밝은 생각을 선택하면 밝은 운명이 된다│할 수 있는 것만 선택하면 무엇이든 할 수 있게 된다│생각을 바꾸면 그게 바로 ‘새로운 나’다 6. 평행우주에서 내가 원하는 나 선택하기 ‘달라진 나’ 속으로 뚜벅뚜벅 4장. 물질에 대한 탐욕 텅 비우기 일체유심조│초정밀 현미경으로 보면 실제로 비어 있다 1. 텅 비어 있는데 왜 보이나? 인생은 정말 꿈인가?│인생은 분명한 목적을 가진 연극이다│나를 바라보는 관찰자는 누구인가? 2. 인생의 설계도를 훔쳐보다 어떻게 족집게처럼 미래를 알아맞힐까?│모든 것의 설계도가 존재한다?│수십 년, 수천 년 앞도 훤히 내다본다│과거도 훤히 읽어낸다 3. 인생은 연극임을 깨닫는 순간 고통은 저절로 사라진다│고유의 배역을 찾게 된다│가슴이 끌리는 일이 나의 배역이다│배역을 찾으면 최고의 능력이 나온다│때로는 잔인한 배역도 있다│겉모습은 배역을 위한 가면일 뿐│세계 최고 부자들이 얻은 교훈 4. 인생은 돌고 돈다 모든 것이 낱낱이 기록된다│인생은 단 한 번으로 끝나지 않는다│윤회에는 정말 과학적 증거가 있는가? 5. 돌고 돌며 영혼을 갈고닦는다 불완전한 신체는 나 스스로 선택한 것│모든 고통에는 숨겨진 교훈이 있다│그녀가 바로 나다│착한 며느리, 나쁜 며느리│가족으로 만난 이유가 있다│배역은 매번 달라진다│남은 나의 거울이다 에필로그 - 나의 뒷모습을 보며 살아라. (shrink)

P'ŭrollogŭ : t'ongil ŭi sahoe iron ŭrosŏ hana nolli -- 1. Huch'ŏn chŏngsin kaebyŏk kwa ch'ŏnjiin habil : hana nolli ŭi ironjŏk paegyŏng kwa chŏnmang -- 2. Hana nolli ŭi hyŏngsŏng : na ŭi ironsajŏk maengnak -- 3. Hana nolli ŭi kuch'uk : charyo, kach'i chŏnje, punsŏkt'ŭl -- 4. Hana nolli ŭi Tong Asiajŏk t'odae -- 5. Hana nolli ŭi ironjŏk t'ŭksŏng kwa chihyang -- 6. Munmyŏng chŏnhwan ŭi kil : huch'ŏn chŏngsin kaebyŏk ŭl nŭkkyŏ poja -- Ep'illogŭ : kurŭm (...) yori wa sinsŏn norŭm. (shrink)

v. 1. Hamniron ŭi chʻŏrhakchadŭl -- v. 2. Kyŏnghŏm ŭi chʻŏrhakchadŭl.

ABSTRACT The individual-community relationship has always been one of the most fundamental topics of social sciences. In sociology, this is known as the micro-macro relationship while in economics it refers to the processes, through which, individual actions lead to macroeconomic phenomena. Based on philosophical discourse and systems theory, many sociologists even use the term "emergence" in their understanding of micro-macro relationship, which refers to collective phenomena that are created by the cooperation of individuals, but cannot be reduced to individual actions. (...) "Emergence" theories attempt to explain the nature of society as a complex system by examining how individuals and their relationships lead to the creation of integrated and macro-social phenomena such as markets, educational systems, cultural beliefs, and shared social practices. As a prelude to activity, every researcher has to answer the question from the methodological point of view, how is it possible to study the behavior of social groups and how can we gain knowledge about the laws related to social groups? Anyone who deals with humanities and social sciences or any reality and phenomenon that affects human beings, inevitably deals with the reality that is emerging. In fact, emergence occurs when one level of reality emerges radically from another level. Examples of emergent levels of reality include how the mind emerges from the body; or the way society emerges from human beings. Therefore, when there is an emerging factor, different scientific disciplines should be used, because it is inevitable to talk about social affairs, psychology and neurobiology, as well as physical and even chemical. -/- INTRODUCTION Since its beginning in the 19th century, sociology has faced the fundamental question of what a social phenomena stands for? At a glance, sociologists deal with the study of social groups, collective behavior, institutions, social structures, social networks, and social dynamics, and ultimately all such phenomena are composed of individuals. Therefore, social phenomena seem to have no independent ontological status, and in this case, sociology is ultimately about reducible individuals. Different approaches about the micro-macro relationship, using the concept of "emergence", argue that although collective phenomena are created by individuals, they cannot be reduced to individual action. The term "emergence" is used to distinguish "emergent results" from " Procedural results". Results are called Procedural that can only be calculated by adding or subtracting the causes that act together. On the contrary, they are emergent outcomes that are qualitatively novel compared to the causes from which they originate. An example of such emergent results is mental characteristics that emerge from neural processes, but are not considered among the characteristics of neural processes of components - which are their origin. Philosophical debates about emergentism and reductionism focus on the mind-brain relationship, but as many philosophers have noted, they can be generalized to apply to any hierarchical set of features. The cognitive revolution reactivated a 19th century controversy between theorists of Identity and dualism. The theorists of Identity believe in reductionist materialism and elimination of metaphysics, according to which the mind is nothing more than the biological, while the dualists believe that the mind and the brain are distinct from each other. Emergence has been considered as a third way between the theories of Identity and dualism. -/- METHODOLOGY Interdisciplinarity Is fundamentally indicated by the dominance of open systems as well as social and emerging systems at different levels. Therefore, as long as we are facing a new emergentism, there will necessarily be different fields and an interdisciplinary method. The commonality of social sciences and cognitive sciences on the issue of emergence provides the possibility of interaction and exchange of concepts between these two for deeper research. Therefore, in this research, apart from the concepts of Subvenience and downward causation, we have used multiple realization and wildly disjunctive, which are used to explain the emerging concept in cognitive sciences, including neurobiology, psychology, and philosophy. For analytical and interdisciplinary approaches, after examining the concepts of subvenience, and wildly disjunctive, Individualistic and collectivist emergentism have been reviewed. And then their adequacy is criticized and evaluated in meeting strong emergence conditions. -/- FINDINGS Philosophers of the mind have been able to define the conditions of irreducibility and downward causation, which are essential for strong emergence, by using the principle of subvenience with the help of multiple realization and wildly disjunctive principles. Therefore, by definition, emergentist individualism suffers from the problem of how to explain downward causality and irreducibility, and emergentist collectivism faces the challenge of reification. The analysis of the challenges facing the two methodological approaches of individualism and collectivism leads us to three unresolved issues about the emerging phenomenon, which are realism, downward causality, and mechanism. Despite the differences in the stances of these two approaches regarding the aforementioned triple problems, individualists and collectivists both agree that some social characteristics are reducible; and some others are irreducible due to their complexity, the determination of which, depends on the case study of the mechanism of emergence of each social characteristic. -/- CONCLUSION An emergence that is consistent with reductionism is called a weak emergence. And strong emergence includes the principle of irreducibility and downward causality. According to strong emergence, the characteristics of social phenomena have downward causal power, which cannot be reduced to the causal forces. The principle of subvenience, together with multiple realization and wildly disjunctive, can provide the conditions of irreducibility and downward causality, which are essential conditions of strong emergence. Based on the philosophical analysis of two methodological approaches, individualist and collectivist, it can be concluded that emergentist individualism suffers from the problem of how to explain downward causality and irreducibility, and reification collectivism faces the challenge of reification. The analysis of the problems faced by these two approaches leads us to three unresolved issues, which are realism, downward causality, and mechanism. individualist emergentists acknowledge the existence of emergent social characteristics, but despite this, they believe that these characteristics are not real but merely analytical constructs that require explanation based on individuals and their mutual actions. But collectivists argue that emergentism yields a categorical ontology and supports social realism. They accept the dependence of social characteristics on individuals, but claim that social entities and structures are ontologically independent. Individualists and collectivists both agree that some social characteristics are reducible; and others are irreducible due to their complexity; and the only way to recognize this is to engage in empirical studies of the mechanisms and temporal processes of "emergence" that create social characteristics. -/- NOVELTY The newness of this compact article is as follows: a) Presenting an interdisciplinary approach using the analysis of philosophy of cognitive sciences, including the philosophy of mind, neurobiology and psychology to formulate the issue of social emergence; b) Criticizing individualist and collectivist methodological approaches to the issue of social emergence and explaining the sufficiency and shortcomings of both in providing weak and strong emerging conditions; c) Explaining and categorizing the challenges facing methodological approaches in explaining the phenomenon of social emergence, in three categories: realism, downward causality, and mechanism. BIBLIOGRAPHY Beckermann, A., Flohr, H., & Kim, J. (eds.) (1992). Emergence or reduction? Essays on the prospects of nonreductive physicalism. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Bhaskar, R. (1979). The possibility of Naturalism. New York: Routledge. Bhaskar, R., Danermark, B. & Price, L. (2018). Interdisciplinarity and wellbeing: A critical realist general theory of interdisciplinarity. London and New York: Routledge. Blau, P.M. (1981). Introduction: diverse views of social structure and their common denominator. In Blau, P.M. & Merton, R.K. (eds.), Continuity in Structural Inquiry (pp. 1–23). Beverly Hills: Sage. Blau, P.M. (1987). Microprocess and macrostructure. In K.S. Cook (ed.), Social Exchange Theory (pp. 83–100). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Brooks, R.A., & Maes, P. (eds). (1994). Artificial life IV; proceedings of the Fourth International Workshop on the Synthesis and Simulation of Living Systems. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. Clark, A. (1997). 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The best-interests standard is a widely used ethical, legal, and social basis for policy and decision-making involving children and other incompetent persons. It is under attack, however, as self-defeating, individualistic, unknowable, vague, dangerous, and open to abuse. The author defends this standard by identifying its employment, first, as a threshold for intervention and judgment (as in child abuse and neglect rulings), second, as an ideal to establish policies or prima facie duties, and, third, as a standard of reasonableness. Criticisms of (...) the best-interests standard are reconsidered after clarifying these different meanings. (shrink)

Volume 19, Issue 10, October 2019, Page 57-59.

Criminal jurisdiction; international criminal courts.

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:Journal of the History of Philosophy 42.3 (2004) 297-326 [Access article in PDF] Wittgenstein, German Organicism, Chaos, and the Center of Life Richard Mcdonough No supposition seems to me more natural than that there is no process in the brain correlated with associating or with thinking; so that it would be impossible to read off thought processes from brain processes. I mean this: if I talk or write, there (...) is, I assume, a system of impulses going out from my brain and correlated with my spoken or written thoughts. But why should the system continue further in the direction of the center. Why should this order not proceed, so to speak, out of chaos? The case would be like the following-certain kinds of plants multiply by seed, so that a seed always produces a plant of the same kind as that from which it was produced—but nothing in the seed corresponds to the plant which comes out of it—this can only be done from the history of the seed. So an organism might come into being out of something quite amorphous, as it were, causelessly; and there is no reason why this should not really hold for our thoughts, and hence for our talking and writing. L. Wittgenstein, Zettel §608 Paragraph 608 of Zettel is one of the most remarkable passages in Wittgenstein, for it presents a more metaphysical view than one would associate with his later philosophy.1 [End Page 297] Despite Wittgenstein's well known opposition to metaphysics,2 Z §608 clearly endorses a doctrine of emergence, the view, that the order in our language and thought "arises" out of "chaos" or "nothing." The general idea in emergentism is that certain kinds of wholes, notably, organisms, are "greater than the sum of their parts."3 Although emergentism has suffered from neglect and abuse for a half century, it has recently become a live issue.4Klee, Kim, and McLaughlin emphasize the kind of emergence which involves "downward causation," the view that the emergent whole causally influences the behavior of its own parts.5 Such emergentism asserts that there is an "explanatory gap" between an organism's characteristics and its mechanical structure,6 where this gap is a matter of ontology rather than mere ignorance of the causes. The present paper argues that Wittgenstein's doctrine of emergence is central to his later philosophies of language and mind. The common view that Wittgenstein's later philosophy is primarily negative has proved a liability for Wittgenstein.7 Cognitive scientists respond that even if there are serious problems with their views, [End Page 298] "Remotely plausible theories are better than no theories at all."8 But Wittgenstein's remark at PI §109 that philosophy should not offer theories has been misunderstood. For Wittgenstein, the paradigm of a theory is mechanics (LAC28-29), and it is not the job of philosophy to explain the phenomena by adverting to hidden mechanisms (PI §435). But philosophy may offer a different kind of positive account, the kind of descriptive account appropriate to emergent organic phenomena.9 According to Z §608, this is a description of the phenomena as it emerges in a history. In order to appreciate Wittgenstein's emergentism, it is necessary to have the correct interpretation of the words "center" and "chaos" in Z §608. Many commentators take it as obvious that by "the center," Wittgenstein means the neural center.10 For in modern neuroscience, it is natural to view the brain as the control center of the organism. Wooldridge, Armstrong, Popper, Rose, Fodor, Dennett, Gillett, Greenfield, and Clark, all use "center" in this way.11Given the modern view, called "central state materialism" as background,12 Z §608 seems to claim, first, that the order of our thought and language cannot be [End Page 299] traced to the neural center, and, second, that intelligence must arise out of neural "chaos." Thus, McGinn thinks Wittgenstein is suggesting that the brain might turn out to be oatmeal.13 But careful attention to... (shrink)